Important Definitions- July

PCR testing is a double-edged sword

How RT-PCR is used for detecting Covid-19? 

The causative agent for Covid19 is the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It is an RNA virus, that means it infiltrates a healthy cell to multiply and survive.

Thus, the RT-PCR test is for the identification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. In this, the RNA is converted to DNA through a process called ‘reverse transcription’ for detecting viruses.

How it is carried out?

The SARS-CoV-2 RNA is generally detectable in respiratory specimens during the acute phase of infection.

1. For that upper and lower respiratory specimens (such as nasal, nasopharyngeal) are collected.
2. This sample is treated with several chemical solutions that remove substances, such as proteins and fats, and extracts only the RNA present in the sample. 
3. Real-time RT-PCR setup usually goes through 35 cycles, which means that by the end of the process, around 35 billion new copies of the sections of viral DNA are created from each strand of the virus present in the sample.
4. As new copies of the viral DNA sections are built, the marker labels attach to the DNA strands and then release a fluorescent dye, which is measured by the machine’s computer and presented in real-time on the screen. The computer tracks the amount of fluorescence in the sample after each cycle. When the amount goes over a certain level of fluorescence, this confirms that the virus is present. 

Why it is compared to a double- edged sword?

The boon and bane of PCR testing are in its capacity to amplify even one viral gene segment in the sample to generate a detectable signal — a positive test.

1. It is a boon because it accurately detects the presence of virus.
2. It is a bane because it is prone to false negative and false positive results.

How it generates false reports?

During sample preparation for testing, if even one gene segment falls into the tube from the laboratory environment, it will be amplified and the test will be positive — but, false positive.

A false negative PCR means that a person with infection was missed by the test, but that is in the very nature of PCR. The viral load is lower in the throat than in the nasopharynx.

• Hence throat swabs are falsely negative in 60% of tests and nasopharyngeal swabs in 30%, according to published studies.

An incorrectly taken nasal swab may miss the virus altogether and lead to a false negative test.

Concerns:

The relatively high frequency of false negative results leads to gross underestimation of the epidemic’s magnitude. Moreover, traced contacts with false negative tests will not be quarantined but allowed to spread the virus, augmenting the epidemic.

Need of the hour:

When a laboratory handles several samples, cross-contamination must be avoided.

For reliability, only laboratories under quality assurance should do testing.

• In January there was one laboratory (National Institute of Virology, Pune) but today there are 1,000.

When a false positive result is suspected, the doctor should alert the authorities, who in turn should get the subject re-tested in an accredited laboratory.

• In case of discrepancy, the laboratory concerned must be closed and checked for compliance with protocols and record-keeping.

In order to avoid blind reliance on the PCR test result, clinical diagnosis by specific criteria, which is the only way to diagnose COVID, (D for disease), should be popularised among doctors.

Reviving SAARC to deal with China

Amid India- China border tensions, as part of its global expansionism, China is chipping away at India’s interests in South Asia.

1. China’s proximity to Pakistan is well known.
2. Nepal is moving closer to China for ideational and material reasons.
3. China is wooing Bangladesh by offering tariff exemption to 97% of Bangladeshi products.
4. It has also intensified its ties with Sri Lanka through massive investments.

So, most South Asian nations are now largely dependent on China for imports despite geographical proximity to India.

This should be a major cause for concern for New Delhi.

Why SAARC is relevant now?

Several foreign policy experts argue that India’s strategic dealing with China has to begin with South Asia.

In this regard, it is important to reinvigorate SAARC, which has been in the doldrums since 2014.

• In the last few years, due to increasing animosity with Pakistan, India’s political interest in SAARC dipped significantly.

India started investing in other regional instruments, such as BIMSTEC, as an alternative to SAARC.

• However, BIMSTEC cannot replace SAARC for reasons such as lack of a common identity and history among all BIMSTEC members. Moreover, BIMSTEC’s focus is on the Bay of Bengal region, thus making it an inappropriate forum to engage all South Asian nations.

What needs to be done now?

To revive the process of South Asian economic integration.

South Asia is one of the least integrated regions in the world with intra-regional trade teetering at barely 5% of total South Asian trade, compared to 25% of intra-regional trade in the ASEAN region.

• While South Asian countries have signed trade treaties, the lack of political will and trust deficit has prevented any meaningful movement.
• According to the World Bank, trade in South Asia stands at $23 billion of an estimated value of $67 billion.

India should take the lead and work with its neighbours to slash the tariff and non-tariff barriers.

There’s a need to resuscitate the negotiations on a SAARC investment treaty, pending since 2007.

Challenges ahead:

There has been anti-Pakistan rhetoric and Islamophobia on the Indian soil. There’s also a recurrent use of the ‘Bangladeshi migrant’ rhetoric.

• Such majoritarian politics influences foreign policy in undesirable ways. It dents India’s soft power of being a liberal and secular democracy, which gives moral legitimacy to India’s leadership in the region.

Next, economic vision of the government remains convoluted. It’s unclear what the slogans of atma nirbharta (self-reliance) and ‘vocal for local’ mean.

• Many are stating that India needs to cut down its dependence on imports, thus signalling a return to the obsolete economic philosophy of import substitution.
• If this marks sliding back to protectionism, one is unsure if India will be interested in deepening South Asian economic integration.

Conclusion:

Deeper regional economic integration will create greater interdependence with India acquiring the central role, which, in turn, would serve India’s strategic interests too.

SATAT Initiative

Indian Oil, NTPC and SDMC have signed an MoU to develop a waste-to-energy facility at Delhi’s Okhla landfill site using gasification technology.

• This plant will process 17,500 tons per annum of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) produced from combustible components of municipal waste to generate syngas which shall in turn be used to generate electricity.

The venture would succeed as there is an existing model of providing offtake guarantee, under the SATAT scheme for compressed biogas production plants.

About SATAT initiative:

The initiative is aimed at providing a Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) as a developmental effort that would benefit both vehicle-users as well as farmers and entrepreneurs.

Compressed Bio-Gas plants are proposed to be set up mainly through independent entrepreneurs.

How it works?

1. CBG produced at these plants will be transported through cascades of cylinders to the fuel station networks of OMCs for marketing as a green transport fuel alternative.
2. The entrepreneurs would be able to separately market the other by-products from these plants, including bio-manure, carbon-dioxide, etc., to enhance returns on investment.
3. This initiative is expected to generate direct employment for 75,000 people and produce 50 million tonnes of bio-manure for crops.

There are multiple benefits from converting municipal solid waste into CBG on a commercial scale:

1. Responsible waste management, reduction in carbon emissions and pollution.
2. Additional revenue source for farmers.
3. Boost to entrepreneurship, rural economy and employment.
4. Support to national commitments in achieving climate change goals.
5. Reduction in import of natural gas and crude oil.
6. Buffer against crude oil/gas price fluctuations.

What is Bio- Gas?

Bio-gas is produced naturally through a process of anaerobic decomposition from waste / bio-mass sources like agriculture residue, cattle dung, sugarcane press mud, municipal solid waste, sewage treatment plant waste, etc. After purification, it is compressed and called CBG, which has pure methane content of over 95%.

What is CBG?

Compressed Bio-Gas is exactly similar to the commercially available natural gas in its composition and energy potential. With calorific value (~52,000 KJ/kg) and other properties similar to CNG, Compressed Bio-Gas can be used as an alternative, renewable automotive fuel.

Way ahead:

The potential for Compressed Bio-Gas production from various sources in India is estimated at about 62 million tonnes per annum.

Going forward, Compressed Bio-Gas networks can be integrated with city gas distribution (CGD) networks to boost supplies to domestic and retail users in existing and upcoming markets.

Besides retailing from OMC fuel stations, Compressed Bio-Gas can at a later date be injected into CGD pipelines too for efficient distribution and optimised access of a cleaner and more affordable fuel.

Clean Energy Can Support India’s Economic Recovery post-Covid-19

NITI Aayog and Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) have released Towards a Clean Energy Economy: Post-Covid-19 Opportunities for India’s Energy and Mobility Sectors report.

What is the report all about?

The report advocates for stimulus and recovery efforts that work towards building a clean, resilient, and least-cost energy future for India.

These efforts include electric vehicle, energy storage, and renewable energy programs.

Challenges posed by COVID- 19:

Covid-19 has presented significant demand- and supply-side challenges for India’s transport and power sectors, from liquidity constraints and supply shortages to shifts in consumer demand and preferences.

The report lays out four principles as a framework for policymakers and other key decision-makers considering programmes to support India’s clean energy future:

1) Invest in least-cost-energy solutions.

2) Support resilient and secure energy systems.

3) Prioritize efficiency and competitiveness.

4) Promote social and environmental equity.

What needs to be done now?

India needs to identify strategic opportunities for economic recovery in the short, medium, and long terms that can translate challenges posed by the pandemic into clean energy transition opportunities.

• Opportunities in the transport sector include making public transport safe, enhancing and expanding non-motorized transport infrastructure, reducing vehicle kilometres travelled through work-from-home where possible, supporting national strategies to adopt electric vehicles in the freight and passenger segments, and making India an automotive export hub.
• In the power sector, opportunities include improving the electricity distribution business and its operations, enabling renewables and distributed energy resources, and promoting energy resilience and local manufacturing of renewable energy and energy storage technologies.

Potential:

The report states that India’s transport sector can save 1.7 gigatonnes of cumulative carbon dioxide emissions.

It can also avoid about 600 million tonnes of oil equivalent in fuel demand by 2030.

Control, not delete: On China apps ban

Citing concerns to both data security and national sovereignty, the Indian government on June 29 announced it would block 59 widely used apps, most linked to Chinese companies.

How government defends its move?

Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology cited “the emergent nature of threats” posed by the apps and “information available” that they are engaged in activities “prejudicial to sovereignty and integrity of India, defence of India, security of state and public order”. 

• The apps, according to the Ministry, had been reported for “stealing and surreptitiously transmitting users’ data in an unauthorized manner to servers which have locations outside India”, which “impinges upon the sovereignty and integrity of India”.

Data localisation:

The government said the move protects the digital data of Indian users from the Chinese government and addresses data localisation concerns.

What does Data Localization mean?

Data localization is the act of storing data on any device that is physically present within the borders of a specific country where the data was generated.

Why data localization is necessary for India?

1. For securing citizen’s data, data privacy, data sovereignty, national security, and economic development of the country.
2. Recommendations by the RBI, the committee of experts led by Justice BN Srikrishna, the draft ecommerce policy and the draft report of the cloud policy panel show signs of data localisation.
3. The extensive data collection by technology companies, has allowed them to process and monetize Indian users’ data outside the country. Therefore, to curtail the perils of unregulated and arbitrary use of personal data, data localization is necessary.
4. Digital technologies like machine learning (ML), artificial intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) can generate tremendous value out of various data. It can turn disastrous if not contained within certain boundaries.
5. With the advent of cloud computing, Indian users’ data is outside the country’s boundaries,leading to a conflict of jurisdiction in case of any dispute.

Data localization is an opportunity for Indian technology companies to evolve an outlook from services to products.

Recommendations:

The Srikrishna Committee wants to localise data for law enforcement to have easy access to data, to prevent foreign surveillance, to build an artificial intelligence ecosystem in India, and because undersea cables through which data transfers take place are vulnerable to attacks.

Reserve Bank of India has also imposed a hard data localisation mandate on payment systems providers to store payment systems data only in India.

The government has also been working on a draft data protection policy since 2018, which is currently under discussion in a joint parliamentary committee.

Police reform and the crucial judicial actor

The death of a father and son due to alleged custodial torture in Sathankulam town near Thoothukudi in Tamil Nadu has brought into focus the topic “Police reforms and the role of Judiciary “.

Such recurring incidents also raise one significant question:

• How many more times must powerless citizens suffer the blows of a lathi or a baton, the kicks of patent leather boots, be violated by the “wooden rollers” around their private areas, not to mention spending hours inside a police lockup, all as a part of an “investigation” by police searching for “truth”?

Role of judiciary:

As always, when the conversation veers in this direction it becomes natural to look towards the judiciary as the source of hope and action.

In this case, the Madurai High Court has taken notice on its own and is “closely” monitoring the situation.

How has the Supreme Court handled this topic in the past?

Supreme Court has intervened multiple times in the 1990s through cases such as Joginder Kumar v. State of UP [AIR 1994 SC 1349] and D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal [(1997) 1 SCC 416], where guidelines were passed to try and secure two rights in the context of any state action:

1. A right to life.
2. A right to know.

Through the guidelines, the Court sought to curb the power of arrest, as well as ensure that an accused person is made aware of all critical information regarding her arrest and also convey this to friends and family immediately in the event of being taken in custody.

• The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act, 2008 gave statutory backing to these judicial guidelines; it remains part of the law today.

Finally, in Prakash Singh v. Union of India (2006) case, the Court pushed through new legislation for governing police forces to be passed by States across India. A key component of the new legislation was a robust setup for accountability that contemplated a grievance redress mechanism. 

What else has been advised by the judiciary to reduce police violence?

1. Support for “scientific” investigations.
2. Fascination for techniques such as narcoanalysis, ensuring video recording of investigations.
3. Passing orders for installing closed-circuit television cameras inside police stations.

Why judicial interventions have failed to curb the violence?

Judiciary’s approach of simply passing directions and guidelines, has proven to be a failure.

• For it is the ordinary magistrate, and not the constitutional court, who is the judicial actor wielding real power to realise substantial change in police practices.
• Gap between the highest court and the lowly police officer in India has been demonstrated through studies which show how despite criminal laws being struck down as unconstitutional, they continue to be enforced in various parts of the country by local police.

What needs to be done?

Rather than expend energies in only passing more guidelines, constitutional courts must seriously contend with the concrete cases that come their way and expose how hard it is for a common man to get justice against police violence, either through compensation claims or prosecutions.

They must shed the institutional baggage which often leads to them protecting the supposedly vulnerable morale of police. 

It is time to consider sanctions at a larger scale and impose monetary penalties at the district level, to drive home the message that the erring actions of one officer must be seen as a failure of the force itself.

They could strike an inspired move by reorienting their guidelines to try and change the practices of magistrates, over whom they exercise powers of superintendence, as opposed to other non-judicial actors.

Same Language Subtitling (SLS) project

The Same Language Subtitling (SLS) project at IIM-Ahmedabad has researched and implemented SLS pilots on TV in eight major Indian languages.

The project has completed a 23 years journey. And yet, the most critical policy step remains unaccomplished — quality implementation of the policy on TV channels.

About SLS project:

In 1996 the Same Language Subtitling (SLS) programme was launched as a research project.

Its aim was to examine whether the subtitling of mainstream TV content could help people, especially those who were hard to reach through traditional literacy programmes, to improve their reading and writing skills.

In 1999, SLS was officially put into practice as a literacy intervention programme by the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIMA) and not-for-profit organization PlanetRead.

• SLS has the proven power to transform much of TV and OTT content consumption into routine reading practice that is inescapable, subconscious, sustainable, scalable, and extremely cost-effective.
• The ‘Accessibility Standards’ of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB), framed in September 2019 under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, require 50% of all entertainment content on TV to carry captions in the same language, or SLS, by 2025.

The main approach of SLS is quite simple: to subtitle audiovisual content in the language of the audio track so the on-screen text and audio match perfectly. While watching TV, viewers can match the words on screen to the sounds they are hearing simultaneously.

Significance and potential of the project:

India is globally the first country where the mainstreaming of SLS on TV and streaming content is being advanced for mass reading literacy.

• When SLS is implemented on TV in all Indian languages, as broadcast policy now stipulates, it will automatically give daily reading practice to an estimated 600 million weak readers who currently cannot read and understand simple text, like a newspaper.
• Within three to five years of regular exposure to SLS on entertainment content already watched, many of them will become functional and some even fluent readers.

Background:

Close to a billion viewers in India watch on average 3 hours and 46 minutes of TV every day (FICCI-EY, 2019). No other activity, nationally, comes close to commanding four billion person-hours every day.

COVID 19 pandemic situation:

COVID-19 has further highlighted the potential of the SLS solution for upping the nation’s mass reading skills. Globally, 1.4 billion children, and in India 300 million, have been locked out of schools. Intermittent school openings and closures are to be expected going forward.

Way ahead:

A national implementation of SLS on existing general entertainment content (GEC) on TV and streaming platforms, also known as Over-The-Top (OTT), would revolutionise reading literacy in India.

This is in addition to having massive national impact in two other domains, that of media access among Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) people and of language learning.

G4 Virus

Researchers in China have discovered a new form of swine flu that can infect humans, and they believe it has the potential to cause a future pandemic.

This swine flu has been dubbed the G4 virus and it’s related to the H1N1 flu that caused widespread illness in 2009.

What is the G4 virus, exactly?

The G4 virus is a newly discovered strain of the H1N1 flu virus.

It’s basically a virus that’s found in pigs but has combined the swine flu virus with the H1N1 virus that circulates in humans.

• G4 viruses bind to receptor molecules in human cells, and can replicate in the outer layer of the respiratory system.

Transmission and symptoms:

The newly identified virus can efficiently infect ferrets via aerosol transmission, causing severe clinical symptoms in them like sneezing, wheezing, coughing, and a mean maximum weight loss ranging from 7.3 to 9.8 per cent of the mammals’ body mass.

Concern:

It has the potential to become a human virus.

• Of concern is that swine workers show elevated seroprevalence for G4 virus.
• Moreover, low antigenic cross-reactivity of human influenza vaccine strains with G4 reassortant EA H1N1 virus indicates that preexisting population immunity does not provide protection against G4 viruses.

What is H1N1 influenza?
Swine flu (H1N1) is a highly contagious respiratory infection caused by a type of Influenza A viruses in humans. It has been named so as people who worked near pigs (or in close contact with them) were seen getting infected by this disease. It was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organisation in the year 2009 as it was spreading aggressively back then.

Special Liquidity Scheme for NBFCs and HFCs

RBI announces special liquidity scheme for NBFCs and HFCs through a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) to avoid any potential systemic risks to the financial sector.

Background:

Finance Minister had announced on 13^th March 2020, launch of a Special Liquidity Scheme of Rs. 30,000 crore.

Key features of the scheme:

• RBI will provide funds for the Scheme by subscribing to government guaranteed special securities issued by the Trust.
• The total amount of such securities issued outstanding shall not exceed Rs. 30,000 crores at any point of time.
• Government of India will provide an unconditional and irrevocable guarantee to the special securities issued by the Trust.

Who is eligible?

NBFCs, including Microfinance Institutions that are registered with the RBI, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, excluding those registered as Core Investment Companies.

Housing Finance Companies that are registered under the National Housing Bank Act, 1987.

Other eligibility criteria:

• CRAR/CAR of NBFCs/HFCs should not be below the regulatory minimum, i.e., 15% and 12% respectively as on March 31, 2019.
• The net non-performing assets should not be more than 6% as on March 31, 2019.
• They should have made net profit in at least one of the last two preceding financial years (i.e. 2017-18 and 2018-19)
• They should be rated investment grade by a SEBI registered rating agency.

Implementation:

1. SBICAP which is a subsidiary of the State Bank of India has set up a SPV (SLS Trust) to manage this operation.
2. The SPV will purchase the short-term papers from eligible NBFCs/HFCs, who shall utilise the proceeds under this scheme solely for the purpose of extinguishing existing liabilities.
3. The instruments will be CPs and NCDs with a residual maturity of not more than three months and rated as investment grade.

Way ahead:

• The Scheme will remain open for 3 months for making subscriptions by the Trust.
• The period of lending (CPs/NCDs of NBFCs/HFCs for short duration of upto 90 days) by the Trust shall be for a period of upto 90 days.
• The financing would be used by the NFBCs/HFCs only to repay existing liabilities and not to expand assets.

Lax on safety: On Nevveli and Vizag disasters

Second Fatal Boiler Blast In Two Months At Plant In Tamil Nadu.

• The blast took place at a power plant of the central government-owned NLC India Limited (formerly known as Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited) in Cuddalore, about 180 km from state capital Chennai.

This once again underscore the value of safety protocols, particularly the Indian Boilers Act.

About the Indian Boilers Act, 1923:

Enacted with the objective to provide mainly for the safety of life and Property of persons from the danger of explosions of steam boilers and for achieving uniformity in registration and inspection during operation and maintenance of boilers in India.

Definitions:

Boiler: Under Section2(b) of the Act, Boiler is any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity which is used expressly for generating steam under pressure and includes any mounting or other fitting attached to such vessel, which is wholly or partly under pressure when is shut off.

Accident means an explosion of a boiler or steam- pipe or any damage to a boiler or steam- pipe which is calculated to weaken the strength thereof so as to render it liable to explode.

Conclusion:

Such accidents are mostly preventable, and occur rarely in the industrialised world, because of impeccable attention to safety. India’s aspirations to industrialise should be founded on safety.

Drug Discovery Hackathon 2020 (DDH2020) launched

What is it?

• It is first of its kind National initiative for supporting drug discovery process.
• It will see participation from professionals, faculty, researchers and students from varied fields like Computer Science, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Medical Sciences, Basic Sciences and Biotechnology.

It is a joint initiative and the participants are:

1. MHRD’s Innovation Cell (MIC).
2. All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE).
3. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
4. Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC).
5. MyGov as well as private players.

Details:

The Hackathon consists of challenges that are posted as problem statements and, are based on specific drug discovery topics which, are open to the participants to solve.

It will have three Tracks.

1. Track 1 will primarily deal with drug design for anti-COVID-19 hit/lead generation.
2. Track 2 will deal with designing/optimizing new tools and algorithms which will have an immense impact on expediting the process of in silico drug discovery.
3. Track 3 is called “Moon shot” which allows for working on problems which are ‘out of the box’ nature.

What is in silico drug design?

In silico drug design is a term that means ‘computer-aided molecular design’.

In other words, it is the rational design or discovery of drugs using a wide variety of computational methods.

It is thus the identification of the drug target molecule by employing bioinformatics tools.

Italian Marines case

Context:

In a setback to India, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) at The Hague has ruled that India does not have jurisdiction to try the marines, who were held in Kerala fishermen shootout case.

What’s the issue?

In 2012, two Italian marines fired shots while on-board an Italian vessel, Enrica Lexie killing two Indian fishermen aboard an Indian vessel, St. Anthony.

But, the fishing vessel was within the country’s Contiguous Zone and it was quite clear that the offence warranted arrest and prosecution under domestic law.

• Eventually, the marines were arrested. But, further the marines were released from India and sent to Italy.

At that time, India had set up a specially designated court, as ordered by Indian Supreme Court, to determine the applicability of jurisdiction.

• Meanwhile, the National Investigation Agency invoked the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against Safety of Maritime Navigation and Fixed Platforms on Continental Shelf Act, 2002.
• The dispute between the two countries as regards which country will try the two marines was before the PCA.

What has the PCA said?

The marines were entitled to immunity as they were acting on behalf of a state.

Italy would have jurisdiction to decide on the question of immunity for the marines.

• Thus, India is precluded from exercising its jurisdiction.

While India’s conduct has not been in breach of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Italy breached provisions of the Convention by intercepting the navigation of India’s vessel.

• Italy is, as a result, liable to pay compensation to India.

PCA also rejected a key argument by Italy that India, by leading the Italian vessel into its territory and arresting the marines, violated its obligation to cooperate with measures to suppress piracy under Article 100 of UNCLOS.

What next?

Both the nations are required to hold consultations in order to arrive at the amount of compensation to be paid to India.

Conclusion:

The PCA’s award, which is final and has been accepted by India, is a huge setback for the expectation that the two marines would face a criminal trial in India.

• In the end, Italy succeeded in taking the matter out of India’s hands. It should now make good on its commitment to have the marines tried under its domestic laws. The takeaway for India should be the lessons, in the legal and diplomatic domains, that can be drawn from the experience.

About PCA:

Established in 1899.

Headquartered at the Hague in Netherlands.

It has Financial Assistance Fund which aims at helping developing countries meet part of the costs involved in international arbitration or other means of dispute settlement offered by the PCA.

All decisions, called “awards” are binding on all the parties in the dispute and have to be carried out without delay.

Functions and jurisdiction:

It provides services of arbitral tribunal to resolve disputes that arise out of international agreements between member states, international organizations or private parties.

• The cases span a range of legal issues involving territorial and maritime boundaries, sovereignty, human rights, international investment, and international and regional trade.

The organization is not a United Nations agency, but the PCA is an official United Nations Observer.

Constitutional amendments in Russia

Context:

As per preliminary reports, Russia’s new constitutional amendments have been passed with 77.92 percent of votes in favour and 22.27 percent against.

The national referendum Had asked voters to decide whether to approve 206 constitutional amendments.

• Both turnout and popular support for the amendments was higher than when Russians voted to adopt the current Constitution itself in 1993 (when support was 58.4 percent with 54.8 percent turnout).

What will change with the constitutional reforms?

1. The amendments would allow Putin to run for two more six-year terms, in 2024 and 2030.

The Russian Constitution bars more than two consecutive presidential terms. The new Constitution doesn’t change the two-term limit in theory, but in practice, it resets Mr Putin’s terms so that it will be the first election under the new Constitution for him, to be held in 2024.

2. Other amendments strengthen presidential and parliamentary powers, enshrine traditional values including an effective ban on gay marriage and guarantee better minimum wages and pensions.
3. The other changes to the constitution include measures to respect the country’s heritage and the orthodox church as well as strengthen the Kremlinover local and municipal authorities.
4. The amendments also place strict limitations on Russians who hold foreign citizenship or residency from serving public office. Most notably, these constitutional restrictions block any individual who has ever held foreign residency or citizenship from ever running for President.
5. Finally, the amendments also declare the importance of a belief in God, that Russia will defend the historical “truth” about WWII, and that Russia is the successor state to the Soviet Union.

Challenges ahead for Russia:

According to the IMF, the economy hasn’t expanded in dollar terms for a decade.

• The Fund estimates the GDP to shrink by 6.6% this year. With the pandemic affecting local businesses and the oil price fall eating into exports revenue, the Kremlin finds it difficult to fix the economy in the near term.

In foreign policy, Russia’s relationship with the West remains troublesome.

• The sanctions imposed on Russia after the annexation of Crimea in 2014 are still in place.
• Russia also faces allegations of interference in the elections of other countries.
• Domestically, Opposition politician Alexei Navalny and his supporters continue to protest against the Kremlin despite state crackdowns.

Privatisation of Railways

Ministry of Railways has kick-started the process to allow private players to operate certain trains on its network by inviting Request for Qualifications (RFQ) for the operation of passenger train services on over 100 routes with 150 modern trains.

• The project will bring private sector investment of about Rs. 30,000 crore.

How it works?

1. Train sets have to be brought by private operators and maintained by them.
2. Fares in private trains will be competitive and prices on other modes of transport like airlines, buses have to be kept in mind while fixing the fares
3. Private participation in passenger train operations will only be 5% of the total operations of Railways. 95% of trains will still be run by Indian Railways.

Objectives of the initiative:

1. To introduce modern technology rolling stock with reduced maintenance.
2. Reduce transit time.
3. Boost job creation.
4. Provide enhanced safety.
5. Provide world-class travel experience to passengers.
6. Reduce demand supply deficit in the passenger transportation sector.

Recommendations by Bibek Debroy Committee:

The Bibek Debroy Committee, which was set up to suggest ways to mobilise resources for the Indian Railways and restructure the Railway Board, had favoured privatisation of rolling stock: wagons and coaches.

Rail Privatisation:

Pros:

Improved Infrastructure – It will lead to better infrastructure which in turn would lead to improved amenities for travellers.

Balancing Quality of Service with High Fares –  The move would foster competition and hence lead to overall betterment in the quality of services.

Lesser Accidents –  Because private ownership is synonymous with better maintenance, supporters of privatisation feel that it will reduce the number of accidents, thus resulting in safe travel and higher monetary savings in the long run.

Cons:

Coverage Limited to Lucrative Sectors – An advantage of Indian Railways being government- owned is that it provides nation-wide connectivity irrespective of profit. This would not be possible with privatisation since routes which are less popular will be eliminated, thus having a negative impact on connectivity. It will also render some parts of the country virtually inaccessible and omit them from the process of development.

Fares –  Given that a private enterprise runs on profit, it is but natural to assume that the easiest way of accruing profits in Indian Railways would be to hike fares, thus rendering the service out of reach for lower income groups. This will defeat the entire purpose of the system which is meant to serve the entire population of the country irrespective of the level of income.

Accountability –  Private companies are unpredictable in their dealings and do not share their governance secrets with the world at large. In such a scenario it would be difficult to pin the accountability on a particular entity, should there be a discrepancy.

Biofuels

Researchers of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Hyderabad have started using computational methods to understand the factors and impediments in incorporating biofuels into the fuel sector in India.

• A unique feature of this work is that the framework considers revenue generation not only as an outcome of sales of the biofuel but also in terms of carbon credits via greenhouse gas emission savings throughout the project lifecycle.

Outcomes:

The model has shown that if bioethanol is integrated with mainstream fuel, the costs associated with it are follows: production cost 43 per cent, import 25 per cent, transport 17 per cent, infrastructure 15 per cent, and inventory 0.43 per cent.

The model has also shown that the feed availability to the tune of at least 40 per cent of the capacity is needed to meet the projected demands.

Significance of Biofuels:

Globally, biofuels have caught the attention in last decade and it is imperative to keep up with the pace of developments in the field of biofuels.

• Biofuels in India are of strategic importance as it augers well with the ongoing initiatives of the Government such as Make in India, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Skill Development and offers great opportunity to integrate with the ambitious targets of doubling of Farmers Income, Import Reduction, Employment Generation, Waste to Wealth Creation.

What are Biofuels?

Any hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from an organic matter (living or once living material) in a short period of time (days, weeks, or even months) is considered a biofuel.

Biofuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous in nature.

1. Solid: Wood, dried plant material, and manure
2. Liquid: Bioethanol and Biodiesel
3. Gaseous: Biogas

Classification of Biofuels:

1st generation biofuels are also called conventional biofuels. They are made from things like sugar, starch, or vegetable oil. Note that these are all food products. Any biofuel made from a feedstock that can also be consumed as a human food is considered a first-generation biofuel.

2nd generation biofuels are produced from sustainable feedstock. The sustainability of a feedstock is defined by its availability, its impact on greenhouse gas emissions, its impact on land use, and by its potential to threaten the food supply. No second generation biofuel is also a food crop, though certain food products can become second generation fuels when they are no longer useful for consumption. Second generation biofuels are often called “advanced biofuels.”

3rd generation biofuels are biofuel derived from algae. These biofuels are given their own separate class because of their unique production mechanism and their potential to mitigate most of the drawbacks of 1st and 2nd generation biofuels.

4^th generation biofuels: In the production of these fuels, crops that are genetically engineered to take in high amounts of carbon are grown and harvested as biomass. The crops are then converted into fuel using second generation techniques.

Government of India initiatives to promote the use of Biofuels:

Since 2014, the Government of India has taken a number of initiatives to increase blending of biofuels.

1. The major interventions include administrative price mechanism for ethanol, simplifying the procurement procedures of OMCs, amending the provisions of Industries (Development & Regulation) Act, 1951 and enabling lignocellulosic route for ethanol procurement.
2. The Government approved the National Policy on Biofuels-2018 in June 2018. The policy has the objective of reaching 20% ethanol-blending and 5% biodiesel-blending by the year 2030.
   • Among other things, the policy expands the scope of feedstock for ethanol production and has provided for incentives for production of advanced biofuels.
3. The Government has also increased the price of C-heavy molasses-based ethanol.

Strength of M.P. Ministry exceeds Constitutional limit

Congress is planning to move the court as the strength of the Council of Ministers in Madhya Pradesh reportedly exceeds the prescribed limit.

Background:

Recently, 20 Cabinet Ministers and eight Ministers of State were included in the Council of Ministers, expanding it to 34.

This is more than 15% of the effective strength of the legislators at 206. The strength of the Council of Ministers shouldn’t have exceeded 30.

• The Assembly strength of 228 dropped in March when 22 rebel Congress MLAs resigned and later switched over to the BJP. Two seats fell vacant earlier owing to deaths.

What the Constitution says?

Article 164 (1A) of the Constitution prescribed that the total number of Ministers, including the Chief Minister, in the Council of Ministers in a State shall not exceed 15% of the total number of members of the Legislative Assembly of that State.

• This provision was introduced through the 91st Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003.

Exceptions: Provided that the number of Ministers, including the Chief Minister in a State shall not be less than twelve.

Article 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor:

1. There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister at the head to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions, except in so far as he is by or under this Constitution required to exercise his functions or any of them in his discretion.
2. If any question arises whether any matter is or is not a matter as respects which the Governor is by or under this Constitution required to act in his discretion, the decision of the Governor in his discretion shall be final, and the validity of anything done by the Governor shall not be called in question on the ground that he ought or ought not to have acted in his discretion.
3. The question whether any, and if so what, advice was tendered by Ministers to the Governor shall not be inquired into in any court.

 Article 164 (2) provides that the Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the State Legislative Assembly.

Article 164 (4) provides that a person can remain as Minister without being a member of the state legislature for a period of six consecutive months.

One Nation One Voter ID

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Election Commission of India (ECI) has made it possible for senior citizens above the age of 65 to vote by postal ballot, given that they are at greater risk from exposure to the novel coronavirus.

• Hitherto, this option was available only to disabled citizens and those above 80 years.

Now, there is an opinion that the same empowering approach be extended to another group which faces enormous difficulties in exercising its franchise: migrant workers.

Why migrant workers?

Internal migrant workers constitute about 13.9 crore as in the Economic Survey of 2017, that is nearly a third of India’s labour force.

They are often unable to exercise their voting rights. Therefore, Migrant workers become quasi-disenfranchised, forgotten voters because they cannot afford to return home on election day to choose their representatives.

• Internal migrant workers do not enrol as voters in their place of employment since they find proof of residence hard to provide.
• This group also does not constitute a vote bank worthy of attention.
• Many are seasonal migrants who would rather vote in their villages if they could afford to return home.

What needs to be done now?

Ensuring that every Indian who is eligible to vote can do so must be a central mission for the ECI.

ECI has said that it is testing an Aadhaar-linked voter-ID based solution to enable electors to cast their votes digitally from anywhere in the country.

• To facilitate voting by migrant workers, the ECI could undertake substantial outreach measures using the network of District Collectorates.
• Migrants should be able to physically vote in their city of work based on the address on their existing voter IDs and duration of their temporary stay.

Conclusion:

A ‘One Nation One Ration Card’ is being ushered in to enable migrant workers and their family members to access Public Distribution System benefits from any fair price shop in the country.

Similarly, voting must be viewed not just as a civic duty but as a civic right. We must demonstrate the political will to usher in ‘One Nation One Voter ID,’ to ensure native ballot portability and empower the forgotten migrant voter.

Bhutan demarches China on its claim to Sakteng Sanctuary

Bhutan’s foreign ministry has issued a demarche to the Chinese embassy in New Delhi for the claims made by Beijing over Sakteng Wildlife sanctuary, situated in eastern Bhutan.

What’s the issue?

Bhutan’s western and middle sector have been in dispute with China (Jakarlung, Pasamlung and Chumbi Valley). However, the eastern sector has not been part of the boundary talks and China had not claimed rights over Sakteng wildlife sanctuary earlier.

• The recent claim was made at the 58th meeting of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Council where China tried to “oppose” funding to a project for the Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary situated in Bhutan saying that it was “disputed” territory.

While Thimphu and Beijing do not have formal diplomatic relations, the two sides have been in talks to resolve the border issues between the two countries and demarcate the boundary.

Where is Sakteng wildlife sanctuary?

Sakteng is based in Eastern Bhutan, or Trashigang Dzongkhag (district) that borders Arunachal Pradesh.

• It protects several endemic species including the eastern blue pine and the black-rumped magpie.
• It was created in part to protect the migoi, a  yeti-like cryptid whose existence has not been scientifically confirmed, but in which the local population strongly believes.

About GEF:

Established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to help tackle our planet’s most pressing environmental problems.

It is an international partnership of countries, international institutions, civil society organizations and the private sector that addresses global environmental issues.

GEF funds are available to developing countries and countries with economies in transition to meet the objectives of the international environmental conventions and agreements.

• The World Bank serves as the GEF Trustee, administering the GEF Trust Fund.

India’s first plasma bank:

Established at the Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences (ILBS), Delhi.

Aim: To ease access to plasma that is being used as a trial to treat Covid-19 patients.

How it functions?

The plasma bank functions like a blood bank, and has been created specifically for those who are suffering from Covid-19, and have been advised the therapy by doctors.

• The bank will coordinate with patients who have recovered from Covid-19, and are eligible to donate plasma.

Who can donate plasma?

Those who had the disease, but have recovered at least 14 days before the donation can be considered.

• People between the ages of 18 and 60, and weighing not less than 50 kg are eligible.
• Women who have given birth are not eligible, as the antibodies they produce during pregnancy (after being exposed to the blood of the foetus) can interfere with lung function.

How is plasma donation different from blood donation?

• In plasma donation, as opposed to blood donation, only plasma is extracted and the other components of blood are returned to the body.
• Blood contains several components, including red blood cells, platelets, white blood cells, and plasma.
• 500 ml of plasma can be donated every two weeks, while blood can be donated once in three months.

 How plasma therapy works?

1. Blood is drawn from a person who has recovered from COVID-19 sickness.
2. The serum is separated and screened for virus-neutralizing antibodies.
3. Convalescent serum,that is the blood serum obtained from one who has recovered from an infectious disease and especially rich in antibodies for that pathogen, is then administered to a COVID-19 patient.
4. The sick acquires passive immunisation.

How long the antibodies will remain in the recipient?

After the antibody serum is given, it will stay on the recipient for at least three to four days. During this period, the sick person will recover. Various studies have confirmed this.

NASA research says the Moon is more metallic than thought before

NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft has found evidence that the Moon’s subsurface might have greater quantities of metals such as iron and titanium than thought before.

• The metallic distribution was observed by the Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF) instrument aboard the LRO.

The Mini-RF findings were backed by metal oxide maps from the LRO Wide-Angle Camera, Japan’s Kaguya mission and NASA’s Lunar Prospector spacecraft, which showed that larger craters with their increased dielectric material were also richer in metals.

How was it discovered?

LRO’s Mini-RF instrument was measuring an electrical property within lunar soil in crater floors in the Moon’s northern hemisphere.

The property, known as the dielectric constant, is the ratio of the electric permeability of a material to the electric permeability of a vacuum.

Dielectric properties are directly linked to the concentration of these metal minerals.

• Level of this property increased as they surveyed larger craters, and kept rising in crater sizes up to 5 km in diameter. Beyond that size, the value of the dielectric constant leveled off.

The findings raise the possibility that the dielectric constant increased in larger craters because the meteors that created them dug up dust containing iron and titanium oxides from beneath the Moon’s surface.

How was moon created?

The most popular theory about the Moon’s creation is that a Mars-sized protoplanet collided with newly formed Earth around 4.5 billion years ago, breaking off a piece of our planet that went on to become its satellite.

• The hypothesis is also backed by substantial evidence, such as the close resemblance between the Moon’s bulk chemical composition with that of Earth.

Implications of latest findings:

It is known that Earth’s crust has lesser amounts of iron oxide than the Moon– a finding that scientists have been trying to explain.

• Now, the new discovery of even greater quantities of metal on the Moon makes their job even more difficult. It really raises the question of what this means for our previous formation hypotheses.

A possible reason could be that the Moon was created from a material much deeper beneath Earth’s surface than was believed before, or that the newly found metal presence could be the result of molten lunar surface cooling down gradually.

About Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO):

It is a NASA mission to the moon within the Lunar Precursor and Robotic Program (LPRP) in preparation for future manned missions to the moon and beyond (Mars).

LRO is the first mission of NASA’s `New Vision for Space Exploration’.

 The objectives of LRO are to:

1. Identify potential lunar resources.
2. Gather detailed maps of the lunar surface.
3. Collect data on the moon’s radiation levels.
4. Study the moons polar regions for resources that could be used in future manned missions or robotic sample return missions.

NHAI to Rank Roads for Quality Service

NHAI has decided to undertake performance assessment and ranking of the highways in the country.

• They are aimed to take corrective recourse, wherever needed, to improve the quality and provide a higher level of service to highway commuters.

How will it be undertaken?

The criteria for the assessment have been broadly categorised in three main heads:

1. Highway efficiency (45%)
2. Highway safety (35%)
3. User services (20%)

Other parameters:

Additionally, important parameters like operating speed, access control, time taken at toll plaza, road signages, road markings, accident rate, incident response time, crash barriers, illumination, availability of Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS), functionality of structures, provision for grade-separated intersections, cleanliness, plantation, wayside amenities and customer satisfaction will also be considered while conducting the assessment.

Significance:

• The score obtained by each Corridor in each of the parameters will provide feedback and corrective recourse for higher standards of operation, better safety and user experience to improve existing highways.
• This will also help in identifying and filling gaps of design, standards, practices, guidelines and contract agreements for other NHAI projects.

Separate ranking for BOT, HAM and EPC projects will also be done:

1. Build Operate and Transfer (BOT) Annuity model:

Under this, a developer builds a highway, operates it for a specified duration and transfers it back to the government.

The government starts payment to the developer after the launch of commercial operation of the project.

2. Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) Model:

Under this model, the cost is completely borne by the government.

Government invites bids for engineering knowledge from the private players. Procurement of raw materials and construction costs are met by the government.

3. The Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM):

In India, the new HAM is a mix of BOT Annuity and EPC models.

As per the design, the government will contribute to 40% of the project cost in the first five years through annual payments (annuity). The remaining payment will be made on the basis of the assets created and the performance of the developer.

Here, the developer has to raise the remaining 60% in the form of equity or loans. There is no toll right for the developer.

Revenue collection would be the responsibility of NHAI.

What is Raman Spectroscopy?

Raman Spectroscopy is a non-destructive chemical analysis technique which provides detailed information about chemical structure, phase and polymorphy, crystallinity and molecular interactions. It is based upon the interaction of light with the chemical bonds within a material.

Raman Scatter:
It is a light scattering technique, whereby a molecule scatters incident light from a high intensity laser light source.

• Most of the scattered light is at the same wavelength (or color) as the laser source and does not provide useful information – this is called Rayleigh Scatter.
• However a small amount of light (typically 0.0000001%) is scattered at different wavelengths (or colors), which depend on the chemical structure of the analyte – this is called Raman Scatter.

Why in News?

Researchers have turned to Raman Spectroscopy to detect RNA viruses present in saliva samples.

• It has been reported that novel coronavirus is found in sufficient numbers in human saliva.

How was it carried out?

For the study, the researchers spiked saliva samples with non-infectious RNA viruses and analysed it with Raman Spectroscopy. They analysed the raw Raman Spectroscopy data and compared the signals with both viral positive and negative samples.

• Statistical analysis of all the 1,400 spectra obtained for each sample, showed a set of 65 Raman spectral features was adequate to identify the viral positive signal.

Significance:

This conceptual framework to detect RNA viruses in saliva could form the basis for field application of Raman Spectroscopy in managing viral outbreaks, such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

• However, in case of COVID 19 pandemic, it can be used only for screening. Because, the RNA virus detected could be a common cold virus as well or any other RNA virus such as HIV. It doesn’t look for COVID-19 viral-specific signature.

But, the main benefit here is that this whole process of data acquisition and analysis can be performed within a minute. Since no additional reagent is needed there is no recurring cost.

• A portable (benchtop or handheld) Raman spectrophotometer installed at the port of entry such as airports or any point of care (in the field) can quickly screen passengers within minutes.

What is Compulsory Licensing?

A compulsory licence is a licence or authorisation issued by the government to an applicant for making, using and selling a patented product or employing a patented process without the consent of the patentee.

Chapter XVI of the Indian Patents Act 1970 and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights discuss compulsory licensing.

• The application for compulsory license can be made any time after 3 years from date of sealing of a patent.

The following conditions should be fulfilled by the applicant:

1. Reasonable requirements of the public with respect to the patented invention have not been satisfied;
2. Patented invention is not available to the public at a reasonably affordable price.
3. Patented invention is not used in India.

Additionally, according to Section 92 of the Act, compulsory licenses can also be issued suo motu by the Controller of Patents pursuant to a notification issued by the Central Government if there is either a “national emergency” or “extreme urgency” or in cases of “public non-commercial use”.

When was the first license issued?

India’s first ever compulsory license was granted by the Patent Office on March 9, 2012, to Hyderabad-based Natco Pharma for the production of generic version of Bayer’s Nexavar, an anti-cancer agent used in the treatment of liver and kidney cancer.

Global Perspective on Compulsory Licensing:

This phenomenon of compulsory licensing is a hugely debated issue. Many developing countries are giving importance to the compulsory licensing because of the unavailability and unaffordability of the medicines, and they are continuously granting more and more compulsory licenses. The developed countries of Europe, USA are opposing this view as it would make innovation difficult for the pharmaceutical companies.

Why compulsory licensing is in News?

Issue compulsory licences for manufacture of an affordable generic version of Remdesivir, CPI(M) tells govt.

• It said the government should invoke Clause 92 of the Patent Act that allows it to issue compulsory licences so that Indian manufacturers can produce a more affordable generic version.

Need for:

Gilead Sciences’ anti-viral drug Remdesivir has shown efficacy in treating COVID-19 patients.

• Media reports indicate that the U.S., which is hoarding all drugs found to be useful in combating the pandemic, has bought the entire stock of Remdesivir from Gilead for the next three months.
• It will therefore not be available for the rest of the world.

Besides, while the cost of manufacturing Remdesivir for a full course — as worked out by experts — is less than $10 or ₹750 in the U.S. And about ₹100 in India. Gilead, by virtue of its patent monopoly, is holding the world to ransom by asking a price that is hundreds of times its cost.

Present scenario:

Given the uncertainty over access to treatments for COVID-19, several countries have been laying the legislative groundwork to issue compulsory licenses for products that patent holders refuse to make accessible.

FAO locust warning

India should remain on high alert against locust attack for the next four weeks, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has warned amid the country facing the worst locust attack in 26 years.

• Spring-bred locust swarms, which migrated to the Indo-Pakistan border and travelled east to northern states, are expected to return back to Rajasthan with the start of the monsoon in coming days.

The current locust attack (2019-2020) has been categorised as an upsurge.

Difference between a locust plague, upsurge and outbreak:

1. Outbreak: If good rains fall and green vegetation develop, Desert Locust can rapidly increase in number and within a month or two, start to concentrate, gregarize which, unless checked, can lead to the formation of small groups or bands of wingless hoppers and small groups or swarms winged adults. This is called an OUTBREAK and usually occurs with an area of about 5,000 sq. km (100 km by 50 km) in one part of a country. 
2. Upsurge: If an outbreak or contemporaneous outbreaks are not controlled and if widespread or unusually heavy rains fall in adjacent areas, several successive seasons of breeding can occur that causes further hopper band and adult swarm formation. This is called an UPSURGE and generally affects an entire region.
3. Plague: If an upsurge is not controlled and ecological conditions remain favourable for breeding, locust populations continue to increase in number and size, and the majority of the infestations occur as bands and swarms, then a PLAGUE can develop. A major plague exists when two or more regions are affected simultaneously.

Outbreaks are common, but only a few result in upsurges. Similarly, few upsurges lead to plagues. The last major plague was in 1987-89 and the last major upsurge was in 2003-05. Upsurges and plagues do not occur overnight; instead, they take many months to develop.

What are ‘desert locusts’?

Desert locusts (Schistocerca gregaria), which belong to the family of grasshoppers, normally live and breed in semi-arid or desert regions. For laying eggs, they require bare ground, which is rarely found in areas with dense vegetation.

How they form swarms?

As individuals, or in small isolated groups, locusts are not very dangerous. But when they grow into large populations their behaviour changes, they transform from ‘solitary phase’ into ‘gregarious phase’, and start forming ‘swarms’. A single swarm can contain 40 to 80 million adults in one square km, and these can travel up to 150 km a day.

Bubonic Plague

Bayannur, a city in northern China, is on high alert after a suspected case of Bubonic plague was reported Recently.

• Authorities in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region announced a level III warning of plague prevention and control.

Local authorities announced that the warning period will continue until the end of 2020 since the plague ran the risk of spreading.

What is the plague?

The plague is a disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, which is found in animals, particularly rodents.

It can be transmitted to humans through infected animals and fleas. 

• In the Middle Ages (5th-15th century), plague was also known as the ‘Black Death’ as it was responsible for the deaths of millions of people in Europe.

There are three types of plague:  

Bubonic plague: This infects a person’s lymphatic system (which is a part of their immune system), causing inflammation in the lymph nodes. If left untreated, the bubonic plague can also convert into either pneumonic of septicemic plague. Its symptoms include fever, chills, weakness and headaches.

Pneumonic plague: According to WHO, pneumonic plague is the ‘most virulent form of plague’ and can be fatal within 24 to 72 hours. It occurs when the bacteria infects the lungs. It is the only type of plague that can be transmitted from human to human. Symptoms are chest pain, fever and cough. It is highly contagious and transmissible merely by coughing.

Septicemic plague: This is when the bacteria enters the blood stream and multiplies there.

If left untreated, pneumonic and bubonic plague can lead to septicemic plague. A person infected by septicemic plague may also notice their skin turning black.

How to treat and control plague?

The plague is a life-threatening disease but if caught early, can be treated with antibiotics. However, without prompt treatment, the disease can lead to serious illnesses and even death.

At times, antibiotics alone are not enough —additionally intravenous fluids and extra oxygen are required to treat a person.

Since it is highly contagious, those who are infected with pneumonic plague are kept in isolation.

• And people in close contact with the person infected are given a dose of antibiotics as a preventive measure.
• Other preventive measures to curb a plague outbreak are to keep the rodent population in control with pest control measures, ensuring that surrounding areas are clear of stacks of wood that rodents feed on among others.

India chapter:

The Bubonic plague severely impacted India too.

• The first official case was reported on 23 September 1896 in what was then Bombay. It was a part of the third plague pandemic, which originated in China in 1855.
• The disease was spread in India through trading ships, hitting the port cities of Calcutta, Karachi, Punjab and United Provinces among others.

Over 12 million Indians were estimated to have succumbed to this disease.

The situation went so out of hand that it led to the Epidemic Disease Act of 1897 being ‘hastily’ drafted. The law has the “power to take special measures and prescribe regulations as to dangerous epidemic disease”.

Permanent commission to all women officers in Army

The Supreme Court has allowed a one-month extension to the government to implement its February 17 judgment to grant permanent commission/command posts to eligible women officers in the armed forces.

What’s the issue?

A petition was filed in the Supreme Court which said the government was creating hurdles in the implementation of the judgment.

However, the government has clarified that it is in the process of implementation of the judgment was at an “advanced state” and a circular would be issued soon.

SC’s February order and its implications:

1. Women officers are be eligible to tenant all the command appointments, at par with male officers, which would open avenues for further promotions to higher ranks for them.
2. The court dismissed the government’s stand that only women officers with less than 14 years of service ought to be considered for permanent commission, and those with over 20 years service should be pensioned immediately.
3. The court has done away with all discrimination on the basis of years of service for grant of PC in 10 streams of combat support arms and services, bringing them on a par with male officers.

Observations made by the Court in its judgment:

It rejected arguments against greater role for women officers, saying these violated equality under law (Article 14).

The biological argument was also rejected as disturbing.

The court had rejected government’s arguments, saying they are based on sex stereotypes premised on assumptions about socially ascribed roles of gender which discriminate against women (Article 16).

It had also said that it only shows the need “to emphasise the need for change in mindsets to bring about true equality in the Army”.

What were the arguments put forth by the government in its defence?

• Motherhood, childcare, psychological limitations have a bearing on the employment of women officers in the Army.
• Family separation, career prospects of spouses, education of children, prolonged absence due to pregnancy, motherhood were a greater challenge for women to meet the exigencies of service.

Physical limitations: Soldiers will be asked to work in difficult terrains, isolated posts and adverse climate conditions. Officers have to lead from the front. They should be in prime physical condition to undertake combat tasks. The Govt. said women were not fit to serve in ground combat roles.

Behavioural and Psychological Challenges: Army units were a “unique all-male environment”. The presence of women officers would require “moderated behaviour”. The male troop predominantly comes from a rural background and may not be in a position to accept commands from a female leader.

Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA)

The US has urged all its allies and partners to forgo transactions with Russia that risk triggering sanctions under the Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA).

• This indicates that despite a change in the ground realities following the deadly clash between India and China along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) last month, the U.S’s message to countries, including India, on sanctions for the purchase of Russian arms has not changed.

What is CAATSA?

Enacted in 2017, it is a US federal law that imposed sanctions on Iran, North Korea and Russia.

Includes sanctions against countries that engage in significant transactions with Russia’s defence and intelligence sectors.

The Act empowers the US President to impose at least five of the 12 listed sanctions on persons engaged in a “significant transaction” with Russian defence and intelligence sectors.

What sanctions will be imposed?

1. prohibition on loans to the sanctioned person.
2. prohibition of Export-Import bank assistance for exports to sanctioned persons.
3. prohibition on procurement by United States Government to procure goods or services from the sanctioned person.
4. denial of visas to persons closely associated with the sanctioned person.

Implications on India:

Although the sanctions are not directly imposed on India, it affects India nevertheless. The major reason for this is the nature of relationship India has with Iran and Russia. India happens to have strong trade ties with both these nation states.

No, as per the provisions of the bill, US imposes sanctions on all its adversaries, as well as all countries and firms dealing with this adversaries.

• So, if India does not remove ties with Russia and Iran, the US may invoke sanctions against India. India cannot afford to lose the growing diplomatic relations with the US, but neither can it afford to forego supplies of defence and oil from Russia and Iran.

New US visa rule puts students  in  a  corner

The US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) has issued a new directive barring international students from continuing their higher education in the country unless they meet specific quotas of in-person classes. 

Who will be affected?

Students participating in university programmes that rely entirely on online courses now risk deportation if they do not leave the country, or transfer to schools with “in-person instruction.”

The order directly relates to those students on F-1 and M-1 visas.

1. F-1 visa holders are those pursuing undergraduate, post-graduate or doctoral studies at tertiary education institutions.
2. M-1 holders are those engaged in vocational courses.

Overall impact:

Nonimmigrant F-1 and M-1 students attending schools operating entirely online may not take a full online course load and remain in the United States.

• Those whose colleges and universities were moving to an online only model would therefore have to leave the country or find another way to stay in status.
• Other measures include such as transferring to a school with in-person instruction to remain in lawful status.

How will this order affect the Indian students?

International students, reportedly, make up 5.5 per cent of the US’ higher education population, numbering just short of 1.1 million.

The Indian student cohort is second only to the Chinese, representing 18 per cent of all foreign students in the US, according to 2017-2018 ICE data.

• The announcement comes weeks after U.S. President Donald Trump suspended H1-B highly skilled worker visas through the end of the year. Most of these visas go to Indian citizens each year.

Financial and technological commitments under UNFCCC and Paris agreement

The fourth edition of the virtual Ministerial on Climate Action was recently held.

• The meeting was co-chaired by European Union, China and Canada.

Outcomes of the meet:

Developed country parties were called upon to do their part as envisaged under UNFCCC and its Paris Agreement, for extending financial and technological support to developing countries.

What was announced under the Paris Agreement?

At the Paris Conference in 2015 where the Agreement was negotiated, the developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020, and agreed to continue mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a year until 2025.

What is the Paris Agreement?

It is a historic international accord that brings almost 200 countries together in setting a common target to reduce global greenhouse emissions in an effort to fight climate change.

1. The pact seeks to keep global temperature rise to below 2 degrees Celsius from pre-industrial levels, and to try and limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
2. To this end, each country has pledged to implement targeted action plans that will limit their greenhouse gas emissions.
3. The Agreement asks rich and developed countries to provide financial and technological support to the developing world in its quest to fight and adapt to climate change.

About UNFCCC:

The UNFCCC was adopted in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit, which marked the beginning of the international community’s first concerted effort to confront the problem of climate change.

Known also as the Rio Convention, the UNFCCC established a framework for action to stabilise concentrations of greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere.

• The UNFCCC entered into force in 1994.

Production of lithium in stars

A forty-year-old puzzle regarding the production of lithium in stars has been solved by Indian researchers.

What was the puzzle all about?

Stars, as per known mechanisms of evolution, actually destroy lithium as they evolve into red giants. Planets were known to have more lithium than their stars — as is the case with the Earth-Sun pair.

However, leading to a contradiction, some stars were found that were lithium-rich. 

• This posed a puzzle — if stars do not produce lithium, how do some stars develop to become lithium rich?

So far, the planet engulfment theory was quite popular. For example, Earth-like planets may increase the star’s lithium content when they plunge into their star’s atmosphere when the latter become Red Giants.

Latest findings:

When stars grow beyond their Red Giant stage into what is known as the Red Clump stage, they produce lithium in what is known as a Helium Flash and this is what enriches them with lithium.

The study also challenges the present understanding of nucleosynthesis in stars.

What is the big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN)?

The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis theory predicts that roughly 25% the mass of the Universe consists of Helium. It also predicts about 0.01% deuterium, and even smaller quantities of lithium.

• It is the production of nuclei other than those of the lightest isotope of hydrogen during the early phases of the Universe. Primordial nucleosynthesisis believed by most cosmologists to have taken place in the interval from roughly 10 seconds to 20 minutes after the Big Bang.

Origin of Lithium:

It was first produced in the Big Bang, around 13.7 billion years ago when the universe came into being, along with other elements.

While the abundance of other elements grew millions of times, the present abundance of lithium in the universe is only four times the original [Big Bang] value.

It is actually destroyed in the stars.

• The Sun, for instance, has about a factor of 100 lower amount of lithium than the Earth.

Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA)

Context:

The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has constituted an inter-ministerial committee to coordinate investigations into violation of various legal provisions of PMLA, Income Tax Act, FCRA etc. by Rajiv Gandhi Foundation, Rajiv Gandhi Charitable Trust & Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust.

What’s the issue?

As per the MHA website, both the RGF and the RGCT are registered FCRA associations, a pre-requisite for NGOs and other associations to receive foreign donations. The Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust is not a FCRA registered association.

All these NGOs have been receiving donations.

What to learn from this article?

Political statements are not important. But, it’s important to know the key provisions of FCRA and how NGOs in India are registered, administered and become eligible to receive foreign donations.

Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010:

Foreign funding of voluntary organizations in India is regulated under FCRA act and is implemented by the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Under the Act, organisations require to register themselves every five years.

As per the amended FCRA rules, all NGOs registered or granted prior permission under FCRA are now required to upload details of foreign contributions received and utilized by them every three months on their website or the FCRA website.

• NGOs now need to file their annual returns online, with the hard copy version dispensed with. The annual returns must be placed quarterly on the NGO’s website or the FCRA website maintained by the home ministry.

Who can accept Foreign Contribution?

A person having a definite cultural, economic, educational, religious or social programme can accept foreign contribution after getting registration or prior permission from the Central Government.

Who cannot accept Foreign Contribution?

1. Election candidate
2. Member of any legislature (MP and MLAs)
3. Political party or office bearer thereof
4. Organization of a political nature
5. Correspondent, columnist, cartoonist, editor, owner, printer or publishers of a registered Newspaper.
6. Judge, government servant or employee of any corporation or any other body controlled on owned by the Government.
7. Association or company engaged in the production or broadcast of audio news, audio visual news or current affairs programmes through any electronic mode
8. Any other individuals or associations who have been specifically prohibited by the Central Government

What is the eligibility criteria for grant of registration?

The Association:

• must be registered (under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 or Indian Trusts Act 1882 or section 8 of Companies Act, 2013 etc.)
• normally be in existence for at least 3 years.
• has undertaken reasonable activity in its field for the benefit of the society.
• Has spent at least Rs.10,00,000/- (Rs. ten lakh) over the last three years on its activities.

What is ‘public interest’?

The FCRA regulates the receipt of funding from sources outside of India to NGOs working in India.

It prohibits receipt of foreign contribution “for any activities detrimental to the national interest”. 

• The Act specifies that NGOs require the government’s permission to receive funding from abroad.
• The government can refuse permission if it believes that the donation to the NGO will adversely affect “public interest” or the “economic interest of the state”.

This condition is manifestly overbroad. There is no clear guidance on what constitutes “public interest”.

Definition of foreign contribution:

It defines the term ‘foreign contribution’ to include currency, article other than gift for personal use and securities received from foreign source. While foreign hospitality refers to any offer from a foreign source to provide foreign travel, boarding, lodging, transportation or medical treatment cost.

Background:

In 2019 alone, more than 1,800 NGOs lost their licence to receive foreign funding.

What needs to be done now?

1. A National Accreditation Council consisting of academicians, activist, retired bureaucrats should be made to ensure compliance by NGOs.
2. There should be better coordination between Ministries of Home Affairs and Finance in terms of monitoring and regulating illicit and unaccounted funds.
3. A regulatory mechanism to keep a watch on the financial activities of NGOs and voluntary organizations is the need of the hour.
4. Citizens today are keen to play an active role in processes that shape their lives and it is important that their participation in democracy go beyond the ritual of voting and should include promotion of social justice, gender equity, inclusion etc.

UAE keen on open-sky policy with India

The United Arab Emirates has said that it is keen to have an open-sky agreement with India.

It asked India to look at Open-sky policy separately from fifth and sixth freedoms (of air).

• The issue of fifth and sixth freedoms of air has been a sore point between airlines in India and the UAE.

What is Open Sky policy?

The agreement will not only encourage connectivity and passenger travel between the two countries, but will also result in reduction in airfares on these routes.

• The National Civil Aviation Policy, 2016, allows the government to enter into an ‘open sky’ air services agreement on a reciprocal basis with SAARC nations as well as countries beyond a 5,000 kilometre radius from New Delhi.
• It implies that nations within this distance need to enter into a bilateral agreement and mutually determine the number of flights that their airlines can operate between the two countries.

India has already signed open sky agreements with Greece, Jamaica, Guyana, Czech Republic, Finland, Spain and Sri Lanka.

Freedoms of air:

International air travel is governed by various freedoms of air.

The degree of “sky openness” depends on the freedoms of the air in the country granted to foreign airlines. There are 9 such freedoms according to the 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation.

Importantly,

1. First freedom of air allows a carrier to take off from its home state.
2. Second freedom of air allows it to land in a second country.
3. Third and fourth freedoms of air allow the airline to take off from the country it has landed in and come back to land at its home base.
4. The fifth and sixth freedoms allow airlines to carry passengers picked from one country and fly them to a third country rather than the country from which the airline originated.

Indian trawlers in Sri Lanka and issues associated

Sri Lanka’s Fishermen along the northern coast of Jaffna Peninsula, especially Point Pedro, have complained to northern Fisheries authorities about their nets being found damaged in the sea, after being caught under the large Indian trawlers that were reportedly in Sri Lanka’s territorial waters.

What’s the issue?

The Indo-Lanka fisheries conflict became a strain on the countries’ bilateral ties, with talks at the highest levels and among fisher leaders on both sides proving futile for years.

• Main Arguments put forth by Sri Lankan fishermen are that Indian trawlers hamper their fish production and the marine habitat – scooping out marine organisms, including fishes and prawns.
• Furthermore, their livelihoods, now under strain due to the coronavirus pandemic that has impaired exports, would be further hit by the Indian trawlers.

How Sri Lankan government is handling the situation?

In the last couple of years, Sri Lanka introduced tougher laws banning bottom-trawling, and heavy fines for trespassing foreign vessels.

• The Sri Lankan Navy arrested over 450 Indian fishermen in 2017 and 156 in 2018 on charges of poaching.
• A total of 210 arrests were made in 2019, while 34 have been made so far in 2020.

What is bottom trawling?

Bottom trawling is a destructive fishing practice which affects the marine ecosystem. The practice, which involves trawlers dragging weighted nets along the sea floor, is known to cause great depletion of fishery resources, and curbing it is in the interest of sustainable fishing.

India-Sri Lanka maritime boundary agreements:

Both countries signed four maritime boundary agreements between 1974 and 1976 to define the international maritime boundary between them. This was done to facilitate law enforcement and resource management in the waters since both countries are located closely in the Indian Ocean, particularly in Palk Strait.

1. The first agreement was regarding the maritime boundary between Adam’s Bridge and the Palk Strait. It came into force on July 8, 1974.
2. The second agreement came into force on May 10, 1976, and it defined the maritime boundaries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal.
3. India, Sri Lanka and Maldives signed an agreement for determination of the tri-junction point in the Gulf of Mannar in July 1976.
4. In November 1976, India and Sri Lanka signed another agreement to extend the maritime boundary in the Gulf of Mannar.

Criminal law reforms

A group of retired judges, former bureaucrats and others have written to the newly constituted Committee for Reforms in Criminal Laws, questioning the lack of diversity in the committee and asking for more transparency in its functioning.

Background:

This committee was first announced by home minister Amit Shah in parliament in December 2019.

• The panel would look into required amendments to the Indian Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure to deal with the issue of mob lynching.

The Committee was constituted through a Ministry of Home Affairs notification on May 4, 2020. The chairperson is Ranbir Singh (vice-chancellor, National Law University Delhi).

What’s the issue?

The line-up of Committee’s members “lacks diversity, both in terms of the social identity of the members, as well as their professional background and experience.”

Unlike previous committees that had been assigned reforms of such magnitude, this one did not even have full-time members.

What needs to be done?

Include more expertise and diversity. Create sub-committees with outside experts and other consultants with established track records in the field of criminal justice who can redress the lack of diversity and experience in the Committee’s current composition.

• The committee should include “eminent women, Dalit, Adivasi and various religious minorities, LGBT, differently-abled criminal law practitioners and grassroots workers from different parts of India”.

The committee should make public the MHA notification constituting it. It should also upload on its website the terms of reference. The committee should clarify whether or not it is working independently of the MHA.

The committee should engage with a wide range of stakeholders in the criminal justice system in a meaningful, substantive, and transparent manner.

Background:

The Criminal law in India is contained in a number of sources – The Indian Penal Code of 1860, the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

Criminal Justice System can impose penalties on those who violate the established laws.

• The criminal law and criminal procedure are in the concurrent list of the seventh schedule of the constitution.

Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay is said to be the chief architect of codifications of criminal laws in India.

Need for reforms:

• Colonial era laws.
• ineffectiveness.
• Pendency of cases.
• Huge undertrials.

Previous committees:

Madhav Menon Committee: It submitted its report in 2007, suggesting various recommendations on reforms in the Criminal Justice System of India (CJSI).

Malimath Committee Report: It submitted its report in 2003 on the Criminal Justice System of India (CJSI).

Equalisation levy on foreign e-com firms

The government has said that it is not considering extending the deadline for payment of Equalisation Levy by non-resident e-commerce players.

What is Equalisation levy?

Equalisation levy at 6% has been in force since 2016 on payment exceeding Rs 1 lakh a year to a non-resident service provider for online advertisements.

• The amendments to the Finance Act, 2020 had expanded the ambit of the equalisation levy for non-resident e-commerce operators involved in supply of services, including online sale of goods and provision of services, with the levy at the rate of 2% effective April 1, 2020.
• The tax applies on e-commerce transactions on websites such as Amazon.com.

What was the need for equalisation levy?

The levy is seen aimed at taxing foreign companies which have a significant local client base in India but were billing them through their offshore units, effectively escaping the country’s tax system.

Penalty:

• As per law, late-payment would attract interest at the rate of 1% per month or part of the month.
• Non-payment could result in a penalty equal to the amount of equalisation levy, along with interest.

What are the issues now?

Tax experts point out that there are practical difficulties in getting PAN and many companies are not paying the equalisation levy as there is still considerable confusion and lack of clarity on the applicability of the same.

• It is believed that the requirement of having a PAN and an Indian bank account could cause administrative delays in remittance by non-residents.

The levy has several issues that primarily include wide coverage (even non-e-commerce companies could be covered), lack of clarity on how consideration needs to be determined especially in cases where the income is minuscule compared to the transactions facilitated by the non-resident e-commerce operators.

• Even transactions between non-residents are covered and this according to tax experts would be an extraterritorial overreach along with practical difficulty in implementation.

Australia and the Malabar Exercise

India to shortly take a call on Australia’s inclusion in Malabar.

Why Australia should be included in the group?

Australia’s inclusion would be seen as a possible first step towards the militarisation of the Quad coalition, something Beijing has opposed in the past.

• Besides, even Japan and the U.S. have been keen on Canberra’s inclusion for sometime now and have been pushing India to consider it.

Procedure to be followed:

Once the government takes a decision to include Australia, as per procedure, the other partner nations — Japan and the U.S. — have to be informed to secure their consent, after which a formal invitation would be extended to Australia.

About Malabar exercise:

Malabar began as a bilateral naval exercise between India and the U.S. in 1992, and was expanded into a trilateral format with the inclusion of Japan in 2015.

• It has been delayed this year due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

What is Quad grouping?

The quadrilateral formation includes Japan, India, United States and Australia.

• All four nations find a common ground of being the democratic nations and common interests of unhindered maritime trade and security.
• The idea was first mooted by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in 2007. However, the idea couldn’t move ahead with Australia pulling out of it.

Significance of the grouping:

1. Quad is an opportunity for like-minded countries to share notes and collaborate on projects of mutual interest.
2. Members share a vision of an open and free Indo-Pacific.
3. It is one of the many avenues for interaction among India, Australia, Japan and the US and should not be seen in an exclusive context.

WHO Declares Sri Lanka, Maldives Measles-Free

The World Health Organization (WHO) has said that measles and rubella have been eradicated from Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

• This makes them the first two countries in WHO South-East Asia Region to achieve measles and rubella elimination ahead of the 2023 target.

 When is a country declared so?

A country is verified as having eliminated measles and rubella when there is no evidence of endemic transmission of the measles and rubella viruses for over three years in the presence of a well performing surveillance system.

• Maldives reported last endemic case of measles in 2009 and of rubella in October 2015, while Sri Lanka reported last endemic case of measles in May 2016 and of rubella in March 2017.

 Background:

Member countries of WHO South-East Asia Region had in September last year set 2023 as target for elimination of measles and rubella, revising the goal of the flagship programme that since 2014 had focused on measles elimination and rubella control.

• Bhutan, North Korea and East Timor were also declared to be measles-free.

The need for elimination:

Eliminating measles will prevent 500,000 deaths a year in the region, while eliminating rubella/ CRS would avert about 55,000 cases of rubella and promote health and wellbeing of pregnant women and infants.

About Measles:

What is It? Measles is a highly contagious viral disease.

Spread: Measles is transmitted via droplets from the nose, mouth or throat of infected persons.

Initial symptoms, which usually appear 10–12 days after infection, include high fever, a runny nose, bloodshot eyes, and tiny white spots on the inside of the mouth. Several days later, a rash develops, starting on the face and upper neck and gradually spreading downwards.

Vulnerability: Severe measles is more likely among poorly nourished young children, especially those with insufficient vitamin A, or whose immune systems have been weakened by HIV/AIDS or other diseases.

• The most serious complications include blindness, encephalitis (an infection that causes brain swelling), severe diarrhoea and related dehydration, and severe respiratory infections such as pneumonia.
• Prevention: Routine measles vaccination for children, combined with mass immunization campaigns in countries with low routine coverage, are key public health strategies to reduce global measles deaths.
• Preventive efforts:Under the Global Vaccine Action Plan, measles and rubella are targeted for elimination in five WHO Regions by 2020. WHO is the lead technical agency responsible for coordination of immunization and surveillance activities supporting all countries to achieve this goal.

Rubella:

It is generally a mild infection, but has serious consequences if infection occurs in pregnant women, causing congenital rubella syndrome (CRS), which is a cause of public health concern. CRS is characterized by congenital anomalies in the foetus and newborns affecting the eyes (glaucoma, cataract), ears (hearing loss), brain (microcephaly, mental retardation) and heart defects, causing a huge socio-economic burden on the families in particular and society in general.

Mongolian Kanjur Manuscripts

The Ministry of Culture had taken up the project of reprinting of 108 volumes of Mongolian Kanjur under the National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM).

Now, the first set of five volumes of Mongolian Kanjur have been released.

What is Mongolian Kanjur?

• In the Mongolian language ‘Kanjur’ means ‘Concise Orders’- the words of Lord Buddha in particular.

It is held in high esteem by Mongolian Buddhists and they worship the Kanjur at temples and recite the lines of Kanjur in daily life as a sacred ritual.

• The Mongolian Kanjur has been translated from Tibetan. The language of the Kanjur is Classical Mongolian.

Historical connection between India and Mongolia:

Historical interaction between India and Mongolia goes back centuries.

• Buddhism was carried to Mongolia by Indian cultural and religious ambassadors during the early Christian era.
• As a result, today, Buddhists form the single largest religious denomination in Mongolia.
• India established formal diplomatic relations with Mongolia in 1955.

About the National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM):

NMM was launched in February 2003 by the Government of India, under the Ministry of Tourism and Culture.

• It has the mandate of documenting, conserving and disseminating the knowledge preserved in manuscripts.

Background:

India possesses an estimate of ten million manuscripts, probably the largest collection in the world. These cover a variety of themes, textures and aesthetics, scripts, languages, calligraphies, illuminations and illustrations.

NEOWISE- a comet

Context:

The recently discovered comet called C/2020 F3, also known as NEOWISE after the NASA telescope that discovered it, will make its closest approach to the Earth on July 22.

• On the day, the comet, which takes 6,800 years to complete one lap around its orbit, will be at a distance of 64 million miles or 103 million kilometers while crossing Earth’s outside orbit.

What is Coma?

On July 3, the comet was closest to the sun at 43 million km. On this day, the comet cruised inside Mercury’s orbit and, due to its proximity to the sun, its outer layer was released creating an atmosphere – referred to as coma – of gas and dust from its icy surface.

• This atmosphere sometimes leads to formation of a bright tail of debris that can extend for thousands or millions of kilometres.

What Are The Differences Between An Asteroid, Comet, Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite?

1. Asteroid: A relatively small, inactive, rocky body orbiting the Sun.
2. Comet: A relatively small, at times active, object whose ices can vaporize in sunlight forming an atmosphere (coma) of dust and gas and, sometimes, a tail of dust and/or gas.
3. Meteoroid: A small particle from a comet or asteroid orbiting the Sun.
4. Meteor: The light phenomena which results when a meteoroid enters the Earth’s atmosphere and vaporizes; a shooting star.
5. Meteorite: A meteoroid that survives its passage through the Earth’s atmosphere and lands upon the Earth’s surface.

NASA’s NEOWISE:

Launched in December 2009 as the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer, or WISE, the space telescope was originally designed to survey the sky in infrared, detecting asteroids, stars and some of the faintest galaxies in space.

It did so successfully until completing its primary mission in February 2011.

• In December 2013, it was re-purposed for the NEOWISE project as an instrument to study near-Earth objects, or NEOs, as well as more distant asteroids and comets.

India’s Tiger Census sets a New Guinness Record

The fourth cycle of the All India Tiger Estimation 2018, results of which were declared on Global Tiger Day last year has entered the Guinness World Record for being the world’s largest camera trap wildlife survey. 

• Camera traps were placed in 26,838 locations across 141 different sites and surveyed an effective area of 121,337 square kilometres.

Tigers in India:

The country now has an estimated 2967 tigers as per the latest census.

With this number, India is home to nearly 75% of the global tiger population.

It has already fulfilled its resolve of doubling tiger numbers, made at St. Petersburg in 2010, much before the target year of 2022.

 4th cycle of all India Tiger Estimation- highlights:

1. Highest number of tigers have found in Madhya Pradesh (526), after that Karnataka has 524 and Uttarakhand is accommodating 442 tigers.
2. In five years, the number of protected areas increased from 692 to over 860, community reserves from 43 to over 100.
3. While the 2014 census pegged the total number of striped big cats in the country at 2,226, the 2010 census put the figure at 1,706 and the 2006 version at 1,411, indicating that tiger numbers have been on the up.
4. While Pench Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh recorded the highest number of tigers, Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu registered the “maximum improvement” since 2014.
5. Chhattisgarh and Mizoram saw a decline in their tiger numbers while tiger numbers in Odisha remained constant. All other states witnessed a positive trend.

All India Tiger estimation:

The All India Tiger Estimation done quadrennially is steered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority with technical backstopping from the Wildlife Institute of India and implemented by State Forest Departments and partners.

Conservation efforts- National and Global:

1. The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) has launched the M-STrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers – Intensive Protection and Ecological Status), a mobile monitoring system for forest guards.
2. At the Petersburg Tiger Summit in 2010, leaders of 13 tiger range countries resolved to do more for the tiger and embarked on efforts to double its number in the wild, with a popular slogan ‘T X 2’. 
3. The Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) program of the World Bank, using its presence and convening ability, brought global partners together to strengthen the tiger agenda.
4. Over the years, the initiative has institutionalised itself as a separate entity in the form of the Global Tiger Initiative Council (GTIC), with its two arms –the Global Tiger Forum and the Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Program.
5. The Project Tiger, launched way back in 1973, has grown to more than 50 reserves amounting to almost 2.2% of the country’s geographical area.

Assam’s Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary to get national park status

Assam government has decided to upgrade the Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary into a national park.

About Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary:

Also known as the Jeypore Rainforest is a part of Dehing Patkai Elephant Reserve .

• Located in Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, the 111.19 sq km Dehing Patkai was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 2004.
• It is home to 47 mammal, 47 reptile, and 310 butterfly species.
• It forms the largest stretch of lowland rainforest in the country.

Dehing is the name of the river that flows through this forest and Patkai is the hill at the foot of which the sanctuary lies.

What is a National Park?

According to the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests, a national park is “[a]n area, whether within a sanctuary or not, [that] can be notified by the state government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association or importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment.

National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas.

• India’s first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand.

Snakebites in India

Centre for Global Health Research (CGHR) at the University of Toronto, Canada, had recently conducted a study on snakebites with Indian and U.K. partners.

• The report has been made public now.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recognises snakebite as a top-priority neglected tropical disease (NTD).

Key findings:

1. Total deaths caused by snakebites in the 20-year period from 2000 to 2019:  1.2 million.
2. Annual Average: 58,000.
3. 70% of these deaths occurred in limited, low altitude, rural areas of eight States — Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana), Rajasthan and Gujarat.
4. Half of all the snakebite deaths occurred during the monsoon period from June to September.
5. Most of the envenomation (the process by which venom is injected by the bite or sting of a venomous animal) was by Russell’s vipers followed by kraits and cobras.
6. Snakebite deaths occurred mostly in rural areas (97%), were more common in males (59%) than females (41%), and peaked at ages 15-29 years (25%).
7. The numbers for annual snakebite deaths were highest in the States of Uttar Pradesh (8,700), Andhra Pradesh (5,200) and Bihar (4,500), it further added.

What needs to be done?

Since deaths are restricted mainly to lower altitude, intensely agricultural areas, during a single season of each year, this should make the annual epidemics easier to manage.

1. Primary victims of snakebites are rural farmers and their families.

Experts suggest that targeting certain areas and educating people with simple methods such as ‘snake-safe’ harvest practices — using rubber boots and gloves, mosquito nets and rechargeable torches (or mobile phone flashlights) — could reduce the risk of snakebites.

2. Improved knowledge of the distribution of venomous snake species as well as the human consequences of bites.

India has sufficient capacity to manufacture large volumes of anti-venom. Better understanding of the distribution of India’s many venomous snake species could help in the design and development of more appropriate anti-venoms.

What is Non- Personal Data?

Committee of Experts on Non-Personal Data Governance Framework has released a draft.

• This government committee (formed in 2019) headed by Infosys co-founder Kris Gopalakrishnan has suggested that non-personal data generated in the country be allowed to be harnessed by various domestic companies and entities. 

What is non-personal data?

Any set of data which does not contain personally identifiable information. This means that no individual or living person can be identified by looking at such data.

• For example, while order details collected by a food delivery service will have the name, age, gender, and other contact information of an individual, it will become non-personal data if the identifiers such as name and contact information are taken out.

Classification:

The government committee has classified non-personal data into three main categories, namely:

1. Public non-personal data: All the data collected by government and its agencies such as census, data collected by municipal corporations on the total tax receipts in a particular period or any information collected during execution of all publicly funded works.
2. Community non-personal data: Any data identifiers about a set of people who have either the same geographic location, religion, job, or other common social interests will form the community non-personal data.
3. Private non-personal data: Those which are produced by individuals which can be derived from application of proprietary software or knowledge.

Suggestions made:

1. Formulate a separate legislation to govern non-personal data.
2. Setup a new regulatory body- Non-Personal Data Authority (NPDA). 
3. The report identifies and defines new stakeholders in the non-personal data ecosystem, including data principal, data custodian, data trustee, and data trust, and contours their obligations and mechanisms to enable data sharing.
4. It has also set circumstances under which a private organisation, that collects non-personal data, needs to be remunerated.

Need for regulation:

Digital transformations all over the world have meant that data is treated as an asset, which is monetised, either directly by trading it, or indirectly by developing a service on top of that data.

• In a data economy, companies with “largest data pools have outsized and seized unbeatable techno-economic advantages.” These companies, having leveraged their “first-mover advantage” to create large pools of data, mean that smaller startups are often squeezed out of the competition, or there are significant barriers to their entry. 

India, being the second-most populous country in the world, also with the second-largest smartphone userbase, is by extension, one of the largest data markets in the world.

What are the global standards on non-personal data?

In May 2019, the European Union came out with a regulation framework for the free flow of non-personal data in the European Union, in which it suggested that member states of the union would cooperate with each other when it came to data sharing.

In several other countries across the world, there are no nationwide data protection laws, whether for personal or non-personal data.

What should the final draft include?

Final draft of the non-personal data governance framework must clearly:

1. Define the roles for all participants, such as the data principal, the data custodian, and data trustees.
2. Regulation must be clear, and concise to provide certainty to its market participants.
3. Demarcate roles and responsibilities of participants in the regulatory framework.

Human Growth Hormone

Context: In a first-of-its-kind case, a 2018 Commonwealth Games silver medallist and reigning national champion weightlifter- Pradeep Singh has tested positive for Human Growth Hormone (HGH).

• He has been handed a provisional four-year suspension after his blood sample tested positive for HGH, which is prohibited in and out of competition by the World Anti- Doping Agency.

What is HGH?

It is known to increase muscle mass, strength as well as tissue- repairing effects, which has been used as a doping agent in power and endurance sports

It is produced in the body and secreted by the pituitary gland near the base of the brain.

• When the gland releases the growth hormone, it results in the secretion of a protein called IGF-1 from the liver. This protein is what ultimately stimulates the growth of bones, muscles and other tissues.

About WADA:

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is a foundation initiated by the International Olympic Committee based in Canada to promote, coordinate and monitor the fight against drugs in sports.

It was established in 1999 as an international independent agency composed and funded equally by the sport movement and governments of the world.

Headquartered in Montreal, Canada.

• The agency’s key activities include scientific research, education, development of anti-doping capacities, and monitoring of the World Anti-Doping Code, whose provisions are enforced by the UNESCO International Convention against Doping in Sport.

National Biopharma Mission (NBM)

Context:

BIRAC has announced that ZyCoV-D, the plasmid DNA vaccine designed and developed by Zydus and partially funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has initiated Phase I/Phase II clinical trials in healthy subjects, making it the first indigenously developed vaccine for COVID-19 to be administered in humans in India.

• DBT has partnered with Zydus to address rapid development of an indigenous vaccine for COVID-19 under the National Biopharma Mission.

About National Biopharma Mission (NBM):

It is an industry-academia collaborative mission for accelerating biopharmaceutical development in the country.

It was launched in 2017 at a total cost of Rs 1500 crore and is 50% co-funded by World Bank loan.

It is being implemented by the Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC).

• Under this Mission, the Government has launched Innovate in India (i3) programme to create an enabling ecosystem to promote entrepreneurship and indigenous manufacturing in the biopharma sector.

It has a focus on following four verticals:

1. Development of product leads for Vaccines , Biosimilars and Medical Devices that are relevant to the public health need by focussing on managed partnerships.
2. Upgradation of shared infrastructure facilities and establishing them as centres of product discovery/discovery validations and manufacturing.
3. Developing human capital by providing specific training.
4. Developing technology transfer offices to help enhance industry academia inter-linkages.

UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Context: Prime Minister to address High-Level Segment of ECOSOC.

The annual High-level Segment convenes a diverse group of high-level representatives from the Government, the private sector, civil society and academia.

• Theme: “Multilateralism after COVID19: What kind of UN do we need at the 75th anniversary”.

About ECOSOC:

The UN Charter established ECOSOC in 1945 as one of the six main organs of the United Nations.

It is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed development goals.

It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. India is the member of ECOSOC (From 1 January 2018 – 31 December 2020)

• It coordinates the work of the 14 UN specialized agencies, ten functional commissions and five regional commissions, receives reports from nine UN funds and programmes and issues policy recommendations to the UN system and to Member States.

NISHTHA– National Initiative for School Heads and Teachers Holistic Advancement

Context: Union HRD Minister launched the first on-line NISHTHA programme for 1,200 Key Resources Persons of Andhra Pradesh.

• These resource persons will help in the mentoring of teachers of Andhra Pradesh, who will take online NISHTHA training on DIKSHA later on.

About NISHTHA:

The initiative is an Integrated Teacher Training Programme of the Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of HRD as part of its National Mission to improve learning outcomes at the Elementary level under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Samagra Shiksha.

• In 2019, NISHTHA was launched in face-to-face mode. Thereafter, 33 states/UTs have launched this programme in their states/UTs.
• Around 23,000 Key Resource Persons and 17.5 lakh teachers and school heads have been covered under this NISHTHA face to face mode till date.

Features:

It has activity based modules including educational games and quizzes, Social-emotional learning, motivational interactions, team building, preparation for school based assessment, in-built continuous feedback mechanism, online monitoring and support system, training need and impact analysis (Pre and Post training).

A study on world population trends

A study was conducted by researchers at University of Washington’s Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME).

It analysed population trends in 195 countries.

• It used data from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017 to model future population in various scenarios as a function of fertility, migration, and mortality rates.

Key findings:

• World population will peak in 2064, at 9.73 billion. This is 36 years earlier than the 11 billion peak projected for 2100 by last year’s UN report World Population Prospects.
• For 2100, the report projects a decline to 8.79 billion from the 2064 peak.

 What about TFR?

Global total fertility rate (TFR) is predicted to steadily decline from 2.37 in 2017 to 1.66 in 2100.

• It is projected to fall below 2.1 in 183 countries.
• In 23 countries including Japan, Thailand, Italy and Spain, it is projected to shrink by more than 50%.

For a generation to exactly replace itself, the replacement-level total fertility rate (TFR) is taken to be 2.1.

India related findings:

1. It projects a peak population of 1.6 billion in 2048, up from 1.38 billion in 2017.
2. By 2100, the population is projected to decline by 32% to 1.09 billion.
3. India’s TFR is already below 2.1 in 2019. It will reach 1.29 in 2100.
4. The number of working-age adults (20–64 years) in India is projected to fall from around 748 million in 2017 to around 578 million in 2100. However, this will be the largest working-age population in the world by 2100.
5. In the mid-2020s, India is expected to surpass China’s workforce population (950 million in 2017, and 357 million in 2100).
6. From 2017 to 2100, India is projected to rise up the list of countries with the largest GDP, from 7th to 3rd.
7. India is projected to have the second largest net immigration in 2100, with an estimated half a million more people immigrating to India in 2100 than emigrating out.
8. Among the 10 countries with the largest populations in 2017 or 2100, India is projected to have one of the lowest life expectancies (79.3 years in 2100, up from 69.1 in 2017).

 Challenges ahead:

• Forecasts highlight huge challenges to the economic growth of a shrinking workforce, the high burden on health and social support systems of an ageing population.
• It forecasts continued trends in female educational attainment and access to contraception will hasten declines in fertility and slow population growth.

What needs to be done?

1. Countries should address the potential catastrophic impact of a shrinking working-age population.
2. Suggested Measures include: such as incentives to increase TFR, and using artificial intelligence as a path towards self-sufficiency.
3. Wealthy countries such as the UK and the USA could counteract the impact of these changes through net migration of working-age adults from the countries with growing populations.
4. The effect of fertility decline on women’s reproductive health rights has to be accompanied by greater economic independence. This would allow women to negotiate with the system on their own terms and for better support services as well.

Report on ‘Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients

The report titled ‘Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients- Status, Issues, Technology Readiness, and Challenges’ was brought out recently by Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), an autonomous organization under the Department of Science & Technology.

Major recommendations given in the report:

1. Focus on engineering and scale aspect of technology development.
2. Need for Mission mode Chemical Engineering with defined targets for uninterrupted synthesis of molecules.
3. Create mega drug manufacturing clusters with common infrastructure in India.
4. Technology platform to be developed for biocatalysis towards reducing process steps for cost optimization.
5. Scale supporting techno-economic feasibility.
6. Attention to technologies like hazardous reactions, flow chemistry, cryogenic reactions, and membrane technology.

What is an API?

Every medicine is made up of two main ingredients — the chemically active APIs and chemically inactive, excipients, which is a substance that delivers the effect of APIs to one’s system.

• API is a chemical compound that is the most important raw material to produce a finished medicine.

In medicine, API produces the intended effects to cure the disease. For instance, Paracetamol is the API for Crocin and it is the API paracetamol that gives relief from body ache and fever.

Fixed-dose combination drugs use multiple APIs, while single-dose drugs like Crocin use just one API.

How an API is manufactured? 

API is not made by only one reaction from the raw materials but rather it becomes an API via several chemical compounds. The chemical compound which is in the process of becoming an API from raw material is called an intermediate.

• There are some APIs that pass “through over ten kinds of intermediates in a process when it changes from being a raw material into an API”. The long manufacturing process is continued until it is purified and reaches a very high degree of purity.

What’s the concern for India now? How COVID 19 induced pandemic has affected?

• Despite being a leading supplier of high-quality medicines to several countries, Indian pharmaceutical industry is highly dependent on China for APIs.
• In the 2018-19 fiscal, the government had informed the Lok Sabha that the country’s drug-makers had imported bulk drugs and intermediates worth $ 2.4 billion from China.
• But with frequent lockdowns due to the deadly coronavirus outbreak, supplies of raw materials from China to produce drugs for treating HIV, cancer, epilepsy, malaria, and also commonly-used antibiotics and vitamin pills, are likely to be hit.

How India lost its API market to China?

During the early 90s, India was self-reliant in manufacturing APIs.

However, with the rise of China as a producer of API, it captured the Indian market with cheaper products and it eventually led to high economies of scale for China.

• China created a low-cost API manufacturing industry. The industry was backed by the low cost of capital followed by aggressive government funding models, tax incentives.
• Their cost of operation is one-fourth of India’s cost. Even the cost of finance in China is 6-7 per cent against India’s 13-14 per cent.
• So, due to low-profit margins and non-lucrative industry, Indian pharma companies over the years stopped manufacturing APIs.

First indigenous vaccine for infant pneumonia approved

The Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) has approved the first fully indigenously developed conjugate vaccine for pneumonia- Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine.

• It has been developed by the Serum Institute of India Pvt. Ltd,

This vaccine is used for active immunisation against invasive disease and pneumonia caused by “streptococcus pneumonia” in infants.

How is Pneumonia spread?

Infectious agents may include bacteria, viruses and fungi.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia in children, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) is the second most common cause of bacterial pneumonia. Respiratory syncytial virus is the most common viral cause of pneumonia.

• Air sacs in an infected individual’s lungs (alveoli) become inflamed due to deposits of fluid and pus, making it painful and difficult for them to breathe.

What are the symptoms of infection?

Symptoms include high fever and chills, cough with phlegm, physical weakness and a feeling of being unwell, shortness of breath and rapid breathing, and a racing pulse.

How can it be prevented and treated?

Preventive measures include maintaining hygiene and getting vaccinations against certain pneumonia causing bacteria.

Saving a child from pneumonia requires urgent treatment, that usually involves the administration of antibiotics, which typically do not cost much. On average, treatment lasts for about five to seven days.

India Energy Modeling Forum

In the recent joint working group meeting of the Sustainable Growth Pillar, an India Energy Modeling Forum was launched.

Composition: The forum would include knowledge partners, data agencies and concerned government ministries.

• NITI Aayog will initially coordinate the activities of the forum and finalizing its governing structure.

Background:

Sustainable Growth Pillar is an important pillar of India-US Strategic Energy Partnership co-chaired by NITI Aayog and United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

• The SG pillar entails energy data management, energy modelling and collaboration on low carbon technologies as three key activities.

The  Forum aims to:

1. Provide a platform to examine important energy and environmental related issues;
2. Inform decision-making process to the Indian government;
3. Improve cooperation between modelling teams, government, and knowledge partners, funders;
4. Facilitate exchange of ideas, ensure production of high-quality studies;
5. Identify knowledge gaps at different levels and across different areas;
6. Build capacity of Indian institutions.

What is Energy Modelling?

Energy modeling or energy system modeling is the process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them.

• Such models often employ scenario analysis to investigate different assumptions about the technical and economic conditions at play.
• Outputs may include the system feasibility, greenhouse gas emissions, cumulative financial costs, natural resource use, and energy efficiency of the system under investigation.

What are Energy Modelling Forums (EMF)?

The Energy Modelling Forum (EMF) in USA was established in 1976 at Stanford University to connect leading modelling experts and decision makers from government, industry, universities, and other research organizations.

• The forum provides an unbiased platform to discuss the contemporary issues revolving around energy and environment.

Hope: UAE’s first mission to Mars

The launch of the United Arab Emirates’ (UAE) first mission to Mars is scheduled for July 16 launch. It will take off from its launch site, Tanegashima Space Center, in Japan.

 Why July launch matters?

• The spacecraft must blast off from the Earth during a brief launch window in July, since Earth and Mars orbit the Sun at different rates and are aligned at their closest points only once every two years.

About the Hope mission:

Announced in 2015 with the aim of creating mankind’s first integrated model of the Red planet’s atmosphere.

The Hope mission is a Mars orbiter spacecraft, which will study the thin atmosphere of Mars.

• The mission is officially named the Emirates Mars Mission (EMM) and the orbiter has been named Hope or ‘Al Amal’.

If successful, the Hope orbiter will join six others in studying Mars, from the US, Europe and India.

The Hope orbiter:

The Hope probe has a mission life of one Martian year, which is almost two Earth years.

The three main objectives of the Hope probe are:

1. to understand the climate dynamics and global weather map of Mars by studying the lower atmosphere of Mars.
2. to explain how the weather of Mars affects the escape of hydrogen and oxygen, by correlating conditions in the lower and upper atmosphere.
3. to understand the presence and variability of hydrogen and oxygen in the upper atmosphere, and why Mars is losing these gases to space.

Significance of the mission:

• It is a known fact that the Red Planet was once habitable, from signatures of flowing water and organic material that point to a past that could have supported living things.
• An understanding of Mars’ past could help scientists understand the future of Earth.

Dolphin number dips in Chambal river

Madhya Pradesh forest department has released the latest Dolphin census report.

Key findings:

There are just 68 dolphins left in 435-kilometre-long Chambal river sanctuary which passes through three states (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan).

Dolphins’ number in Chambal river has been reduced by 13 per cent in four years.

The decreasing trend is continuing from 2016 when there were 78 dolphins.

Reasons for the decline:

1. Illegal sand mining.
2. Overuse of river water.
3. Changing River course.
4. Inland waterways / Movement of large cargo vessels.
5. Various anthropogenic / religious activities.
6. Accidental killing – by catch/ fisheries related entanglements.

Key facts- Gangetic dolphin:

1. Platanista gangetica has been declared endangered by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 
2. It has rudimentary eyes. From preying to surfing, dolphins do it through ultrasonic sound.
3. It is India’s national aquatic animal and is popularly known as ‘Susu’
4. They are distributed across seven states in India: Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal.